语言学笔记(上课的笔记)

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION (高叔叔说这章要考50分，所以东西有点多~)

1.Linguistics

1.1Definition: linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Three key words:

? Language:preceded by the zero article implies not any particular language but language in general. ? Study: investigate examine research ? Scientific:

observation →generalization→hypotheses formation→data collection→hypotheses testing→ theory formulation How to make a study \

1) Exhaustiveness: gather all the materialsrelevant to one's investigation and give theman adequate explanation. 2) Consistency: make no contradiction between parts of the total statement 3) Economy: other things being equal, simpler shorter analysis is better.

4) Objectivity: be as objective as possible in describing and analyzing the data, allowing no prejudice to influence one’s generalization. 1.2 the scope of linguistics

General linguistics: the study of language as a whole. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.

General linguistics can be further divided into theoretical linguistics (micro-linguistics) and application of linguistics (macro-linguistics). 1.2.1 Theoretical linguistics:

1)Phnetics :the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.

2) Phonology : studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.

3)Morphology: study of the way in which the smallest meaningful components called morpheme are arranged to form words.

4) Syntax[‘sint?ks]: studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences 5)Semantics [si’m?ntiks]: the study of meaning in isolation, statically out of context. 1.2.2 Application of linguistics(2-8了解即可)

1) Pragmatics: the dynamic study of meaning in context.

2) Applied linguistics: application of linguistics theories, principles, methods and research findings to any language connected areas (broad sense), to language teaching esp to the teaching of foreign or second language (narrow sense) It includes language acquisition, language testing, language evaluation.

3) Sociolinguistics: the study of social factors of language such as education background, economic status, sex and its relation with society. It includes language norm, language change and language policy.

4) Psycolinguistics: studies the correlation between linguistic behavior and psychological processes that are believed to underlie that behavior. it aims to answer three questions:1) how human work when we use language; 2)how we acquire our mother tongue ; 3)how we percept and internalize the information we receive in communication.

5) Anthropological linguistics: it uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.

6) Neurolinguistics : studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.

7) Mathematical linguistics: studies the mathematical features of language by employing models and concepts of mathematics.

8) Computational linguistics; approaches in which mathematical techniques and concepts are applied with the

aid of computer machine. Translation or automatic translation; project which teaches machine how to recognize speech sounds and therefore words (speech synthesis) 1.3 important distinctions in linguistics ( 重点 )

1.3.1 Prescriptive and descriptive [Descriptive →objective Prescriptive→subjective ]

? If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use , it is descriptive(描写性） ? If it aims to lay down rules for correct behavior, that is to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, It is called Prescriptive（规定性).

Traditional grammar is Prescriptive, while modern linguistics is descriptive. 1.3.2 Synchronic (共时) vs diachronic (历时) ? The description of language at some point in time is a Synchronic study. (Periodical study)

? The description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. (Hisistorical study) 1.3.3 Speech and Writing

Two major media of communication,speech is primary to writing. 1.3.4 Langue (语言) and Parole (言语)

? Ferdinand de Saussure (1857—1913), pioneer of semiotics (符号学) ,he is the father of modern linguistics.

? Course in General Linguistics published in 1916. Saussure’s work marked the beginning of modern linguistics. ? Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. It is a set of rules and conventions which all language users all have to abide by. It is abstract, not the language people actually use. ? Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use . It is concrete, naturally occurring language event. 1.3.5 competence（语言能力）and performance (语言运用) It was proposed by American linguistics N. Chomsky in the late 1950's.

? Competence refers to the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language and, ? Performance refers to the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication, ? what linguist should study is competence, not performance, why? 1) Competence is comparatively stable

2) Performance is haphazard due to some social or psychological factors such as stress, anxiety and embarrassment, or mistakes such as slips of the tongues and unnecessary pauses, despite a perfect knowledge. It is a distinction between what one “knows” and what one “does”. 2.Language

2.1 Definition of language

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 2.2 Design features of language (重点) Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.

? Arbitrariness（任意性）

It means there is no logical (intrinsic or direct) connection between sounds and meanings, or the linguistic forms bear no natural relationship to their meaning. ? Productivity (创造性/多产性)

Different sounds can be grouped to form words ,and different words can be arranged to form different sentences. Productivity is unique to human language. ? Duality (二元性)

*Language is a system consisting of two levels: Lower (sounds) and Higher (meaning)

? At the lower level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless,which can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning

? At the higher level, the units of meaning can be grouped and regrouped into an infinite number of sentences. Phoneme—morpheme—word—phrase—clause—sentence

? Displacement (移位性) [2 dimensions: Temporal时间的 & Spatial空间的 ]

Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present real or imagined, matters in the past ,present or future .

? Cultural transmission (文化传递性)

Language can be passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning rather than by instinct or inheritance/birth. ? Specialization (特化作用)

Linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose, such as breathing or feeding. ? Interchangeability/reciprocity (相互性)

This refers to the fact that any speaker/ sender of a linguistic signal can also be a listener/ receiver. 2.3 Functions of Language

1)Informational function（信息功能）: transmission of information (tell story /teaching)

2) Interpersonal function（人际功能）: interaction between the addresser (writer) and addressee (reader) and their attitudes among each other. (personal talk)

3)Performative function（施为功能）: use language to change one’s social status.

4)Emotive function（感情功能）: change the emotional status of audience for or against some one or something. 5)Phatic function（寒暄功能）: maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content (nice day/ good morning )

6)Recreational function（娱乐功能）: use language for sheer joy

7) Meta-lingual function（元语言功能）: use language to talk about language itself.

CHAPTER 2 PHONOLOGY(木有讲~~)

CHAPTER 3 MORPHOLOGY(形态学) ? What is word?

Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether in spoken or written form.

? Three aspects of words:

1) A physically definable unit：Phonological & orthographic 2)The common factor underlying a set of forms. 3) A grammatical unit ? Classification of words:

1) Variable and invariable words （有时态变化的词和没有变化的词） 2) Lexical words(实词) and grammatical (function, form) words(虚词) 3) Open-class words (开放性词) and closed-class words（封闭性词） ? Word formation:（最重要的两种）

1) Compounding（复合词） 2）Derivation(派生词) 3. What is Morphology?

Morphology: the study of the internal structure of words and rules for word formation. In other words, it is the study of the composition of words.

3.1Two sub-branches of Morphology: 1) inflectional morphology屈折形态学 2) derivational morphology词汇形态学 3.2 Morpheme词位，语素 (形位) 3.2.1 Definition of morpheme

? Morpheme: Smallest meaningful components of words. 3.2.2 Allomorphs 词位变体 The different/ variant forms of the same morpheme are called its allomorphs（词位变体）. A morpheme needs to be represented in certain phonological and orthographic forms. one denotes its lexical meaning and the other the grammatical meaning. 6.3 Types of Morphemes

6.3.1 Free Morphemes 自由词位（语素）

? A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. Free morphemes fall into two categories: content words (open-class words) & function words (closed-class words) 6.3.2 Bound Morphemes 黏着词位（语素） ? Bound morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound, to form a word.

? Bound morphemes include two types: roots (词根) and affixes（词缀）

? Affixes are of two types: inflectional(屈折词缀)and derivational(派生词缀)

1) Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations such as number, tense, degree, and case. 2) Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. CHAPTER 4 SYNTAX(木有讲~~) CHAPTER 5 SEMANTICS(语义学) 5.1 The definition of semantics

? Semantics is the branch of linguistics which studies meaning in language.

The theme of semantics is meaning. Language must have meaning and meaning is part of language.

A sentence is considered correct or acceptable if it is well-formed both grammatically and semantically. 5.2 Approaches to meaning 5.2.1 Meaning as naming

? The meaning of an expression is what it refers to (or denotes), stands for, or names.also called referential (or denotational) theory, or naming theory. 5.2.2 Meaning as concept

? Any particular sound image is psychologically associated with a particular concept. 5.2.3 Meaning as behaviour

? The meaning of an expression is the stimulus either the stimulus that evokes it or the response that it evokes, or a combination of both on particular occasions of utterance,also called behaviourism or behaviourist theory. 5.2.4 Meaning as context

? The meaning is found in the context within which a particular expression is uttered. Two kinds of context are recognized: a linguistic context and a situational context. 5.2.5 Meaning as truth conditions ? The sense of a declarative sentence permits you to know under what circumstances that sentence is true. Those “circumstances”are called truth conditions of the sentence. This is called truth-conditional theory/semantics,

S is true if and only if P

5.2.6 Meaning as use

It asserts that the meaning of an expression is just the use to which it is put in the language,also called use theory. 5.3 Word meaning

5.3.1 Sense and reference

? Sense(意义) relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves (mostly words), it is concerned with intralinguistic relations.

? Reference（所指） deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc., and the non-linguistic world of experience.

5.3.2 Seven types of meaning（记得到那七种意义就可以了~概念不用背）

According to the British linguist G. Leech, meaning in its broadest sense can be classified into seven types: 5.3.2.1 Conceptual meaning（概念意义）

? The meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to. 5.3.2.2 Connotative meaning（内涵意义）

? Connotative meaning is the communicative value that a word or a combination of words has by virtue of what refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.

Difference between connotative meaning and conceptual meaning ? Connotative meaning is peripheral, and relatively unstable.

? In addition, connotative meaning is indeterminate and open-ended in a sense in which conceptual meaning is not.

5.3.2.3 Social meaning（社会意义）

? Social meaning is that which an expression conveys about the social circumstances of its use. It chiefly includes stylistic meaning and the illocutionary force of an utterance. 5.3.2.4 Affective meaning（情感意义）

? Affective meaning or emotive meaning refers to the fact that language reflects the feelings of a speaker. 5.3.2.5 Reflective meaning（联想意义）

? Reflective meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense. 5.3.2.6 Collocative meaning（搭配意义）

? Collocative meaning is composed of the associations a word obtains because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its circumstances.

5.3.2.7 Thematic meaning（主题意义）

? Thematic meaning is what is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.

5.3.3 Semantic relations between words（记名字就可以了~~那两个有differences的要注意） ? Homonymy(同音异义)：words having different meaning have the same form. Words are identical in sound =>homophones(同音异形异义字) Words are identical in form =>homographes(同形异义字)

Words are identical in sound and form =>homonyms(同形同音异义字) ? Polysemy（一词多义）：one word having two or more meanings which are all related by extension. Difference between polysemy and Homonymy The distinction can be found in the typical dictionary entry for words. If a word has two or more meanings (polysemic), then there will be a single entry, with a numbered list of the different meanings of the word. If the two words are treated as homonyms, they will typically have two separate entries. ? Synonymy（近义词）：the sense relation of “sameness of meaning”. ? Antonymy（反义词）：refers to oppositemess of meaning. ? Hyponymy（下义关系）：the relationship where the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another.

Hyponymy: X is a kind of Y eg:Potato is a kind of vegetable,

? Meronymy（部分与整体）：the semantic relationship which obtains between “parts” and “wholes”body.

Meronymy: X is a part of Y eg:Head is a part of body.

5.4 Sentence meaning

Predication (句子) consist of Arugement（变元）&Predicates（谓语） consist of Features（语义特征） 5.5 Semantic relations between sentences(名字要记到，最好晓得例子) ? Entailment(蕴含关系)

? Presupposition（预设关系） ? Synonymy（同义关系）

? Inconsistency（不一致关系）

? Implicature（暗含关系）

5.6 Three Theoretical Approach（了解第一个就可以了，其他的两个晓得名字就OK~） 5.6.1 Componential analysis（成分分析）

? Componential analysis claims that all lexical items can be analyzed into a set of semantic components or semantic features which may be universal.

? The problems:It is not easy to show relations of antonymy or oppositeness of meaning. 5.6.2 Semantic Field Theory ? A semantic field is a group of lexemes.(词位) 5.6.3 Cognitive Semantics（认知语义学） ? It identifies meaning with conceptualization-the structure and processes which are part of mental experience.

CHAPTER 6 PRAGMATICS

6.1 The definition of pragmatics

? Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use. 6.2 The scope of pragmatics

? Micropragmatics（微观语用学）

The study of language use in smaller contexts. Phenomena such as reference（指称）, deixis（指示）, anaphora（回指） and presupposition（预设） are the topics in this field.

? In pragmatics, reference can be defined as an act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something.

? In semantics, reference is often assumed that the words we use to indentify things are in some direct relationship to those things.

? Macropragmatics（宏观语用学） ? Metapragmatics（元语用学） 6.3 Pragmatic theories

6.3.1 Speech act theory（言语行为理论）（晓得名字，记到一个例子就可以了~~）

? Speech act theory was proposed by J. L. Austin , which proposed that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to “do things”, to perform acts.

A. locutionary act（言中行为）: the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference

B. Illocutionary act（言外行为）: the making of a statement, offer, promise, etc. in uttering a sentence, by virtue of the conventional force associated with it.

C. Perlocutionary act（言后行为）: the bringing about of effects on the audience by means of uttering the sentence, such effects being special to the circumstances. e.g. The weather is fine.

言中行为：仅仅是描述天气好

言外行为：天气那么好，我们逃课嘛去逛街嘛 言后行为：我们没有去上课，去逛街去了~~

6.3.2 Searl's classification of illocutionary acts（塞尔对言外行为的分类）（记名字和类型） ? Representatives（阐述类）：statements of fact, assertions, conclusions, and descriptions ? Directives（指令类）：They are commands, orders, requests, suggestions ? Commissives（承诺类）：They are promises, threats, refusals, and pledges. ? Expressives（表达类）：They are apologizing，thanking，congratulating. ? Declarations（宣告类）：The speaker has to have a special institutioanl role, in specific context, in order to perform a declaration appropriately.

6.3.3 Indirect speech act（间接言语行为） ? 三种基本句子形式及其对应功能：

Declarative(陈述句) => statement Interrogative（疑问句） => question Imperative（祈使句） => command

? 当句子形式与其基本功能不相互对应时，则此时即发生了“间接言语行为” 6.3.4 The cooperative principle（合作原则）

6.3.4.1 The cooperative principle and its maxims（合作原则及准则）比较重要，都记一下嘛`~~ ? The Maxim of Quality（质量原则）：Try to make your contribution one that is true (i) Do not say what you believe to be false;

(ii) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. ? Maxim of Quantity（数量原则）：

(i) Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purposes of the exchange) . (ii) Do not make your contribution more informative than required. ? Maxim of Relation（相关原则）: Be relative. ? Maxim of Manner（礼貌原则）: Be perspicuous. (i) Avoid obscurity of expression. (ii) Avoid ambiguity. (iii) Be brief. (iv) Be orderly.

6.3.4.2 Conversational implicature（话语暗示）

? Conversational implicature is a kind of extra meaning that is not contained in the utterance.

?According to Grice, conversational implicatures can arise from either strictly and directly observing or deliberately and ostentatiously flouting the maxims. 6.3.5 The politeness principle（礼貌原则）（呜呜~我也不晓得这个重要不，还是了解一下嘛~~） ? Tact Maxim （得体原则） a) Minimize cost to other b) Maximize benefit to other ? Generosity Maxim（慷慨原则） a) Minimize benefit to self b) Maximize cost to self ]

? Approbation Maxim（赞扬原则） a) Minimize dispraise of other b) Maximize praise of other ? Modesty Maxim（谦虚原则） a) Minimize praise of self b) Maximize dispraise of self ? Agreement Maxim（赞同原则） a) Minimize disagreement between self and other b) Maximize agreement between self and other ? Sympathy Maxim （同情原则） a) Minimize antipathy between self and other b) Maximize sympathy between self and other

CHAPTER 11 SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION(二语习得) （还木有上完哈，我不晓得那些是重点，上完了补给你们哈~~）

? Second Language Acquisition (SLA): refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second

language subsequent to his native language.

? Target language (TL)(目的语): the language which a person is learning, in contrast to a first language or mother tongue.

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