语言学

Chapter 1

1.Linguistic:the scientific or systematic study of language.

2.The three canons信条 of linguistic study: Exhaustiveness详细的----It strives for thorough-goingness in the examination of relevant相关的 materials; Consistency：彻底的，there should be no contradiction矛盾 between different parts of the total statements; Economy节省的other things being equal,a shorter statement or analysis is to be preferred to one that is longer or more complex.

3.The subject matter of linguistics is all natural languages,living or dead.语言学是科学的一个分支linguistics is a branch of science.

4.Linguistics has two main purposes.One is that it studies the nature of language and tries to establish a theory of language,and describes languages in the light of the theory established.The other is that it examines all the forms of language in general and seeks a scientific understanding of the ways in which it is organized to fulfill the needs it serves and the functions it performs in human life.

5.Linguistics VS traditional grammar:differ from TG in at least 3 ways.First,linguistics describes languages and does not lay down制定rules of correctness.Ls are said to be descriptive,not prescriptive规范的。Secondly,linguistics regard the spoken language as primary基本的 首要的,首先的not the written。（后来才出现much latter）Thirdly,TG is based on Latin and it tries to impose强加 the Latin categories and structures on other

languages,while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.优点 价值

6.The major branches of linguistics include phonetics /f??netik/ 语音学phonology音系位学,morphology形态学,syntax句法学,semantics语义学,and pragmatics语用学,which can be called microlinguistics微观语言学

7.The scientific study of speech sounds. The study of how speech sounds function in a language. The study of the formation形成 of words(the grammar of words). Sy deals with the combination of words into phrases,clauses and sentences.the grammar of sentence construction. The study of meaning in all its formal aspects. The study of language in use. 以上都有其明确研究范围 还可研究其中关系形成别的研究分支如sociolinguistics,psycholinguistics等等都叫做macrolinguistics.

8.Language is a system of arbitrary任意的 vocal声乐的 symbols used for human communication.

9.Origin of language---grows and develops in society.

10.Design features of language(1)language is human specific. Arbitrariness任意性，duality or double articulation二元/双重性，productivity or creativity创造性interchangeability交互性displacement移位性，specialization专门性/互不干扰性and cultural transmission文化传递性。

11.arbitrariness任意性(arbitrary):refers to the fact that there is no logical or

intrinsic 本质的connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. ... Productivity refers to man's linguistic ability which

enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language,including the sentences which were never heard before. Interchangeability or reciprocity is the fact that man can both produce and receive message,and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease. A property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time. Specialization is the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement涉及 包含 in the act of communication. Cultural T 不是与生俱来的 狼孩儿不会说人话。

12.Functions of language,use it for infinite purposes--writing letters,making

speech,talking to ourselves ect.But the primary function is to transmit information and to convey commands,feelings and emotions.L

Is a tool of communication.Linguist have used different terms for different specific functions.here are some of the major categories:Phatic（交际的） function/communion（共享 恳谈）;directive function指示命令；informative function；interrogative function疑问；expressive function,evocative function行事create certain feelings in the hearers,jokes,ads and propaganda宣传 ；performative function

13.Traditional grammars told people how to uses a language.但语法不对的当今也可见tried to lay down rules,they are often called prescriptive.But most modern linguistics is descriptive.Descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language,while prescriptive规定性的 grammars tell people what should be in the language.Language changes and develops,but the changes should be

observed and described.do not deny that language have rules,原则是我们能懂 14.Synchronic同步的 不考虑历史变化的 限于一时的 and diachronic历经时间变化的 探求现象变化的 linguistics 横纵比较. Language can be studied at a given point in time or over time.when we study language at one particular time,it's called synchronic linguistics(focus on the state of language at any point in history while dia focus on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.when study language developments

through

time,called

diachronic

or

historical

linguistics.synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics are correlated 相关联的 in the valid有根据的 有效的 study of language. 15.考试重点 langue浪哥 and parole 语言和言语

Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole refers to particular realizations领悟 认知 of langue.Langue is the social,conventional side传统的，常规的 符合习俗的 of language,while parole is individualized speech.L is the code,and P is the message.P is the concrete具体的manifestation表现 of language either through speech or writing.L is the abstract knowledge necessary for speaking,listening,writing

and

reading.It

is

relatively

stable

and

systematic,whereas然而 P is more variable and may change according to contextual上下文的factors.P and L together constitute组成language. 16.competence and performance:the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations,VS their actual linguistic

behavior.=the actual use of this knowledge.

17.功能主义学派和形式主义学派见page18 functionalism and formalism.

Chapter2 the sound of language

1.phonetics:the study of the speech sounds that occurred in all human languages.Its three main branches:1）articulatory发音语学--the study of how speech sounds are produced,or articulated. 2）acoustic phonetics听觉的 声音

的---deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air.3)auditory听

觉器官的 phonetics---deals with how speech sounds are perceived感知的 by the listener.

2.唇upper/lower lip 齿upper/lower teeth 齿龈alveolar ridge硬/软鄂hard /soft palate=velum 小舌uvula 咽腔pharynx 声带vocal cords nasal cavity鼻腔 larynx喉 articulators发音 glottis声门 vibration颤动

3.Voiced and voiceless sounds浊音与清音---when the airstream is obstructed阻碍,the vocal cords are drawn together,/b/ /d/ /g/ /z/OR the vocal cords are spread apart,the airstream is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freely./p/ /t/ /k/ /s/ the distinction is felt by the vibrations颤动 of the vocal cords.e.g rope/robe seal/zeal... 4.Nasal and oral sounds鼻音和口腔音

5.The classification of all speech sounds:voiced,voiceless,nasal and oral.One sound must have two of theses features.比如：b d g is voiced and oral. m n /?/is voiced and nasal. P t k is voiceless and oral

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