语言学总结

Chapter 语言学

1. Linguistics: It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. Some important distinctions in linguistics (1). Descriptive vs. prescriptive

If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, i.e. , to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. (2).Synchronic vs. diachronic A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.

(3).Speech and writing Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.

(4).Langue & parole Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as langue and parole. (5).Competence and performance A language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.

Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.

3. Human language is ‘unique’ (1).arbitrariness随机性 (2).productivity多产性 (3).duality二元性 (4).displacement可替代性

(5).cultural transmission文化传播性

Chapter 语音学

1. Phonetics： Is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages. 2.

3. Orthographic representation of speech sounds: broad and narrow transcriptions

4. Classification of English speech sounds (1)Vowels In the production of a vowel, the air stream from the lungs meet with no obstruction (2).Consonants

In the production of a consonant, the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.

5. The difference between vowels and consonants: The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.

6. Classification of English Consonants

English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. (1). manner of articulation Stop (or Plosive) -Oral & Nasal: [P] [b]; [t] [d] Fricative: partial obstruction [f] [v] [s] [z] [?] [?] [h] (Median) Approximant Lateral (Approximant) Affricate: [t ?] [d ?] Liquids: [l] [r] Nasals: [m], [n], [?] Glides: [j] [w]

(2). place of articulation:

Refers to the point where a consonant is made.

Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart: Bilabial: [p], [b], [m], [w] Labiodental: [f] [v] Dental: [e][θ]

Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [n] Postalveolar:

Retroflex Palatal

Velar: [k] [g] [?] Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal: [h] ?

7. Classification of English vowels

Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: The position of the tongue: Front, central, back

The openness of the mouth: Close, semi-close, semi-open, open The shape of the lips: Rounded, unrounded The length of the vowels: Long, short Monophthongs; diphthongs

8. We can now describe the English vowels in this way:

Chapter 音系学

1. Phonology ：is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.

2. difference：Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sound, but they differ in their approach and focus.

3. Phone, phoneme, and allophone

(1).Phone: a phonetic unit or segment; a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning;

(2).Phoneme: a phonological unit, abstract and of distinctive value;

(3).Allophone: the different phones that represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment.

(4) Minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings * Kill, till, pill * Beat, bit, bet, boot

4. Some rules in phonology (1). Sequential rules * If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. * If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: a. The first phoneme must be /s/

b. The second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/ c. The third phoneme must be /1/ or /r/ or /w/. (2). Assimilation rule (3).Deletion rule: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.

Chapter 形态学

1. 造词的方法：How to express the reference in updating world? * Coining completely new words and expressions * Generalizing derivational words from existing ones

* Using the first letters of the group of words and forming a new spelling which covers the meanings of the phrase. (Acronym)

* Pronouncing the first letter of each word individually, to represent the whole phrase. (Alphabet Abbreviation)

* Picking up symbolic letters within the word to represent the complete form, like the clippings of the paper. (Clippings)

* Blending the words into halves, using the former part of the former

word, and the latter part of the latter one, to form a new word, within which, the meanings of the two words are both contained. (Blends) ?

Motel=Motor+hotel;

Informercial=Information+commercial;

Brunch=Breakfast+lunch; Optical+electricity=Optitricity.

* Using specific brand names of products as names for the products in general ? ? ?

I left my IBM in my office;

We can use your xerox when camping. Can I borrow your L’oreal?

* Using Proper names which are of historic reasons to indicate the correspondent reference. ?

Hooker, for the prostitutes following the troops led by the general Hooker;

* Borrowing words and expressions from another language directly, for the local usage. ?

Sushi (from Japanese); 镭射 (from English Acronym: Razor) 雷达 (From English Acronym: Radar); インフォーメーション (From English)

* Changing the Meaning of Word, which means that with the time passing by, a new meaning can be given to the original word.

2. The formation rules for word (1). Morpheme The minimal meaningful unit within a language. *Morpheme

*Free morpheme *bound morpheme

*One-morpheme-word *prefix/infix/suffix bound basement contracted forms

3. Affix: derivational affix and inflectional affix

(1). Derivational: changing the part of the speech of the words (suffix) as well as making alterations to the original meanings (prefix/suffix). (Open) (2). Inflectional: adding meanings of tense, aspect, property, number and voice to the original word, without changing its part of speech, but just indicating its grammatical relationships with others. (Close) Quiz

4. The principles of adding deriv./inf. * All prefixes are derivational morphemes * All inflectional ones are suffix

* When adding one derivational morpheme to the word, then other derivational ones of the same position may be blocked.

* When adding both derivational and inflectional morphemes to the same word, the inflectional morpheme is usually added at the last place, which could be regarded as the outline of the word.

Chapter 句法学

1. Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.

2. Immediate Constituent Analysis * (IC Analysis) * Phrase Structure * Tree diagram *

N=noun A=adjective V=verb P=preposition Det=determiner Adv=adverb Conj=conjunction

NP=noun phrase AP=adjective phrase VP=verb phrase PP=preposition phrase S=sentence or clause 3. Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions ? ? ?

The boy smiled. (Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence He hid behind the door. (Neither constituent can function as an He kicked the ball. (Neither constituent stands for the verb-object structure as a whole.) adverbial.)

sequence.) ?

John seemed angry. (After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)

Chapter 语义学

1. Semantics is the study of meaning in language.

2. The meaning of meaning

3. Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning: * Conceptual meaning * Connotative meaning * Social meaning * Affective meaning * Reflected meaning * Collocative meaning * Thematic meaning ====== associative meaning

3. The naming theory

Plato: the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.

4. Semantic triangle 5. Contextualism ? ? ?

1930 to 1960

Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, and context -- language should be treated as a mode of action, not an instrument

elements closely linked with language behavior. of reflection

? ?

For a large class of cases ... the meaning of a word is its use in the One can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable

language contexts. 6. Behaviorism ?

Jill Jack ? R

7. Sense and reference

* Sense: the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; the collection of all the features of the linguistic form

* Cat: a small furry animal with whiskers and sharp claws, often kept as a pet or to catch mice

* Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world * The dog is barking.

8. Major Sense Relations

(1).Synonymy: Words that is close in meaning. Stylistic synonyms: Synonyms differing in style ? ? ? ?

old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent start, begin, commence kid, child, offspring

kick the bucket, pop off, die, pass away, decease

S r……s Bloomfield: situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer

Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning

? ? ?

collaborator'' and \

accuse ... of, charge ... with, rebuke ... For amaze and astound

Collocational synonyms Semantically different synonyms

(2). Polysemy: The same one word may have more than one meaning. (3). Homonymy The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words is identical in sound or spelling, or in both. * Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peace leak/leek * Homographs: bow v./bow n. tear v. / tear n. lead v. / lead n * Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v. scale n./scale v

(4). Hyponymy A is included in / a kind of B.

Cf.: chair and furniture, rose and flower Superordinate/hypernym: the more general term Hyponym: the more specific term Co-hyponyms: members of the same class

(5). Antonym: words that are opposite in meaning * Gradable antonyms: old and young ? ? ?

good ----------------------- bad long ----------------------- short big ----------------------- small

Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very. Can have comparative forms. Can be asked with how.

* Complementary antonyms: the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other ?

* Relational opposites: Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship

buy : sell lend : borrow give : receive parent : child husband : wife teacher : student above : below before : after host : guest employer : employee

9. Sense relations between sentences *X is synonymous with Y X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never married all his life. X: The boy killed the dog. Y: The dog was killed by the boy.

if X is true, Y is true, and if X is false, Y is false.

* X is inconsistent with Y X. John is married. Y: John is a bachelor.

X: This is my first visit to your country. Y: I have been to your country before. if X is true, Y is false, and if X is false, Y is true.

* X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X. ) X: John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond.

alive : dead male : female present : absent innocent : guilty odd : even pass : fail boy : girl hit : miss

X: He has been to France. Y: He has been to Europe

If X is true, Y is necessarily true; If X is false, Y may be true or false

* X presupposes Y. (Y is a prerequisite of X.) X: John's bike needs repairing. Y: John has a bike.

X: The queen of England is old. Y: England has a queen.

If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.

* X is a contradiction. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor. 那位无腿女孩踩了我一脚。

* X is semantically anomalous The table has bad intentions.

Chapter 语用学

1. Definition of Pragmatics * The study of language in use. * The study of meaning in context.

* The study of speakers’ meaning: utterance meaning & contextual meaning.

2. Process of Communication—Message Model For Speaker: Encoding—inserting to sound—expression For Hearer: Listening—decoding—forming sense (message)

The communication is successful when the hearer decodes the same message that the speaker encodes.

3. Problems with the Message Model ? ? ? ?

The message often contains information about particular things being referred to, but the message model contains only general denotations, not specific references ? ? ? ? ? ? ? you! ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Message Model does not account for the fact that sometimes we Custom: My car has a flat tire.

Staff: Let me see, aha! It’s not goodyear, god bless you!

Custom: You can say that again! I have an emergence and it is flat! Staff: I know buddy! You can sell it to the rag pickers. I know a mean to communicate more that what our sentences mean.

Kid: Really? Now I’ll make that two, since I have another one from Mom: (Ft…) the last paper.

The Message Model does not account for the additional fact that Kid: Mom, I got a goose egg for you.

Mom: Great! That’s great! You are so intelligent! I’m so proud of we often speak nonliterally. Failing to spot the speaker’s communicative intention. A: I hate shrewd politician!

B: Yeah, such as Richard Nixon, totally hooligan!

A: …(How dare you curse my bener! I mean Winston Churchill…) The hearer must be able to mentally process sentences that reflect A: we lived in Illinois, but we got Milwaukee’s weather. B: Which was worse?

complex structural properties of human language—ambiguity.

fucking good old man. He can offer you a good price… ?

4. The Inferential Model

Successful communication according to the Inferential Model:

Linguistic communication is successful if the hearer recognizes the speaker’s communicative intention. Linguistic communication works because the speaker and the hearer share a system of inferential strategies leading from the utterance of an expression to the hearer’s recognition of the speaker’s communicative intent.

5. Speech Act Theory

(1). Constatives: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is, eg: I go to the park every Sunday. I teach English.

(2). Performatives: utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false.

6. Illocutionary Act Theory

* an act performed in saying something. To say sth is to do sth. * In saying X, I was doing Y.

* In saying “I will come tomorrow”, I was making a promise.

7. The Cooperative Principle (CP) Maxim of Quality: Do not say what you believe to be false.

Do not say something if you lack adequate evidence; Maxim of Quantity:

Customer: I said, I HAVE A FLAT TIRE! Go get a new one fucker!

Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purposes of the exchange).

Do not make your contribution more informative than required.

Maxim of Relation: Be relative.

Maxim of Manner: Be perspicuous. Avoid obscurity of expression. Avoid ambiguity. Be brief. Be orderly.

8. Politeness Principle

Self(自身)----refers to the speaker.

Other (他人)----refers to the addressee or a third person, present or not. Benefit (惠) & Cost (损)

Generally speaking, if there is benefit, there must be cost.

Tact Maxim

a) Minimize cost to other b) Maximize benefit to other]

Generosity Maxim a) Minimize benefit to self

b) Maximize cost to self] a) Minimize dispraise of other b) Maximize praise of other a) Minimize praise of self b) Maximize dispraise of self Approbation Maxim Modesty Maxim Agreement Maxim

a) Minimize disagreement between self and other b) Maximize agreement between self and other a) Minimize antipathy between self and other b) Maximize sympathy between self and other

Sympathy Maxim

chapter 认知学

1. cognitive linguistics ：Is based on human experience of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world

2. Categorization （范畴化）

Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.

范畴化是基于人类经验的异同将我们的经验划分成不同的类型。 There are three levels in categories: the basic level, the super-ordinate level, and the subordinate level. (1). Basic level 基本层次范畴

The categories at the basic level are those that are most culturally salient and are required to fulfill our cognitive needs the best.

This is the level where we perceive the most differences between “objects” in the world

其特征体现在以下四个方面（克劳褔特和克鲁兹）： 1 由行为相互作用产生典型范式的最具包容性的层次。 2 构成清晰图像的最具包容性的层次。 3 代表部分-整体信息的最具包容性的层次。 4 为日常参考所提供的层次。

(2). Superordinate level 上位层次范畴

Superordinate categories are the most general ones. The members of a superordinate category do not have enough features in common to conjure up a common gestalt at this level. 其特征体现在以下四个方面(Croft and cruse)：

1 上位范畴没有基本层次范畴好，尽管它的成员可以区别于邻近的范畴，但是范畴内的相似性相对比较低。 2 上位范畴比基本层次范畴的定义特征是少。

3 基本层次范畴的中间层次上位范畴之间有单一的修饰关系。 4 从语言学的角度说，上位范畴的名词大多是物质名词，而基本层次范畴的名词是可数名词。

(3)Subordinate level附属层次范畴 At this level we perceive the differences between the members of the basic level categories. Often the names for SUBORDINATE LEVEL categories are morphologically complex. They are typically composite forms. One such example is that of compound nouns. 其特征体现在以下三个方面（克劳褔特和克鲁兹）：

1 附属范畴比基本范畴层次尽管它们的低，尽管它们的成员之间有很高的相似性，但于临近的范畴成员的区别性却很低。 2 它们的信息性相对比它们的中间层次上位范畴少。

3 它们是多词素性的，而最普遍的格式是修饰－中心语结构。

3. Image schemas 意象图式

Mark Johnson (1987) defines an image schemas a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience.

约翰逊把意象图式定义为通过感知的相互作用和运动程序获得的对事物经验给以连贯和结构的循环出现的动态模式。

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