On the Differences Between Chinese and British Dietetic Cult

题 目:On the Differences Between Chinese and British Dietetic Cultures 姓 名: 专 业: 英 语 班 级:

学 号: 导 师:

2013年 5 月 15 日

毕业论文独创性声明

本人所呈交的毕业论文是在导师指导下进行的工作及取得的成果。除文中已经注明引用的内容外，本论文不包含其他个人已经发表或撰写过的研究成果。对本文的研究做出重要贡献的个人和集体，均已在文中作了明确说明并表示谢意。

作者签名： 日期：

CONTENTS

Abstract .......................................................................................................................... 1 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 2 Introduction of Chinese and British dietetic cultures ................................................. 2 2.1 Characteristics of Chinese dietetic culture ............................................................... 2 2.2 Characteristics of British dietetic culture ................................................................. 3 3 Differences in the performance of Chinese and British dietetic cultures ................... 4 3.1 Differences between Chinese and British diet tableware ........................................ 4 3.1.1 Chopsticks VS knives and forks ........................................................................... 4 3.1.2 Square tables VS round tables .............................................................................. 6 3.2 Differences between Chinese and British diet manners .......................................... 6 3.2.1 Seating arrangement: south VS right .................................................................... 6 3.2.2 Dining atmosphere: bustle VS quiet ..................................................................... 8 3.3 Differences between Chinese and British diet objects ............................................. 9 3.3.1 White wine VS red wine ....................................................................................... 9 3.3.2 Chinese black tea VS British black tea ............................................................... 10 4 Causes of the differences between Chinese and British dietetic cultures ................. 11 4.1 Individualism VS collectivism ............................................................................... 11 4.2 Nutrition VS flavor ................................................................................................ 12 5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 13 References .................................................................................................................... 15 中文摘要 ...................................................................................................................... 16

On the Differences Between Chinese and British

Dietetic Cultures

Abstract： Dietetic culture, as a part of cross-culture, has the important significance

in the research of cross-cultural communication. This thesis explores the differences between Chinese and British dietary cultures. Different countries have their own dietary cultures and this thesis is an attempt to enumerate some different performances in diet tableware, diet manners and diet objects to illustrate cultural discrepancies between China and Britain. Besides, the thesis concludes the causes that lead to cultural differences between two countries. By illustrating some examples in performances and analyzing some causes, the thesis aims to make people understand better the cultural nature hidden in dietetic differences. Only in this way can people avoid cultural conflicts at the table.

Keywords: intercultural communication; dietetic culture; culture differences

1 Introduction

There is an old saying in China, “Food is the paramount necessity of the people.”1 So food is not only the indispensable necessity for the survival and good health of human beings, but also the basic condition of social growth. We cannot be separated from “food” or “eating” in our daily life. We need food to make ourselves vibrant and energetic, because food can give us every kind of nutrition that we need.

In ancient times, human beings, both in the east and in the west, like any other animals, looked for food, which is just the instinct. With the appearance and application of fire, cooking food has begun to be a proprietary skill or technology of

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民以食为天。

1

human beings. There are many discrepancies of dietary cultures in diverse regions because of the differences in geography, climate, environment and the cooking ways.

Today, we live in an environment of globalization that makes us inevitably touch a lot of cross-culture. While “food” or “eating” is an important part in our daily life, it is also an indispensable aspect in cross-culture communication. People often negotiate in businesses and interchange ideas and feelings at the table. Thus it is necessary for us to know the table etiquettes or food objects. Through analyzing the differences between China and Britain in their cultures and the causes that result in such discrepancies, people can know different cultures deeper and avoid embarrassment.

2 Introduction of Chinese and British dietetic cultures

With the appearance and application of fire, cooking food has begun to be a proprietary skill of human beings. Due to the different cooking methods, dietetic cultures became different too. Chinese dietetic cultures own historic characteristic, traditional characteristic and so on while British dietetic cultures have raw and cold characteristics.

2.1 Characteristics of Chinese dietetic culture

China is an ancient country full of splendid civilization. Food dietetic culture also has a long history. After long years of baptism, Chinese food dietetic culture possesses historic characteristic, traditional characteristic, expansible characteristic or compatible characteristic.

First, in terms of historic characteristic, China has had 170 to 180 million years of cooked food history since Shanxi ape man and Yunnan ape man used fire. It also has 50 to 60 million years if we count from the Peking men. For example, the site of Peking man at Zhoukoudian2 was recognized as the most important relics of human use of fire. This is unique among the nations of the world. 2

北京周口店遗址

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Second, in respect of traditional characteristic, Chinese people have advocated “making the best use of everything” science ancient times. In the eyes of Chinese chefs, each ingredient can be cooked into a delicious dish. Besides, Chinese people are always particular about “flavor”. What?s more, dietary therapy is also an important part in Chinese traditional food culture. Through a Chinese saying “Food cures better than medicine”, we can see that the aspiration of food for Chinese not only stays in the taste but pays more attention to the health.

At last, the expansible characteristic or the compatible characteristic is also one of the most significant features in Chinese history. Chinese food dietetic culture has not only impacted on the neighboring country like tea ceremony and bean curd of Japan, but also affected some western countries to a large extent. In 18th century, British, American and other European countries introduced south China pig and fostered many excellent breed. Another example is black tea which English men preferred to is originated from China. The tea technology of Chinese was exported to Britain in Ming dynasty, and then was to America and other European countries.

As a whole, the historic, traditional and expendable features are the main characteristics of Chinese food culture. 2.2 Characteristics of British dietetic culture

Compared with Chinese food culture, Englishmen prefer to the uncooked food and cold food. In addition, dessert after meal, balanced nutrition and plates apart are also the features of British deictic culture.

We didn?t have the cooking culture until we had begun to apply and spread the fire. In fact, China is the earliest country of using fire to cook the food. To some extent, the reason that westerners prefer uncooked and cold foods is because their cooked foods culture was behind Chinese. No matter steak or lamb chop, people much more like to eat rare or medium.

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Moreover, desserts are indispensable parts in British food culture. There must be a dessert in a formal western meal, including cakes, ice-cream, and cheeses and so on. In comparison, the Chinese people prefer to drink some soup after meal.

Paying attention to nutrition is another important feature of English food culture. As mentioned above, the Chinese emphasize the flavor more, which makes them use the way of decocting and frying to cook food. Thus inevitably destroying the nutrition of food itself. While British people will adopt the way of toasting and simmering or even eating raw to preserve the nutrition.

The most obvious difference between Chinese and British food dinning is eating customs. As we all know, the dishes of English are always small and delicate. They like to eat apart. What?s more, it is dazzling enough for us to tell the types of knives and forks. However, Chinese people traditionally eat in one plate and we do not need many table wares.

3 Differences in the performance of Chinese and British dietetic cultures

The differences between Chinese and British cultures reflected in the specific performance are particularly obvious. Knife and forks and chopsticks, square tables and round tables are the most obvious diversity in the space of tableware. “Seating face south” is “seat of honor” of Chinese while “right” is for British. In addition, bustle and quiet is two different dinning atmosphere of Chinese and British. 3.1 Differences between Chinese and British diet tableware 3.1.1 Chopsticks VS knives and forks

Compared to the large number of knives and forks of Westerners, Chinese tableware is relatively simple——chopsticks. Chinese people eat a meal with a pair of chopsticks. Using knife and fork or chopsticks embodies the different cultures between China and Britain.

The history of chopsticks in China can be traced back as early as 3000 years ago, which was during the Shang and Chou dynasty. By comparison, the

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westerners didn?t invent a knife and fork until 16th century. Unlike the knife and fork which separate food from small pieces, the chopsticks pick up food together, which reflect the Chinese traditional concept of “Oneness between man and nature.3” When Chinese use chopsticks, instead of poking or stabbing the food, they just pick up food with gentle and lightly actions. Liu Chenghua (2002) once said: “food was no longer the prey under the human beings? violence, but turned out to be the substance passed harmoniously through them.4” As the saying by Liu, chopsticks are very gentle tool. Although chopsticks are simply made of wood or bamboo, it contains a lot of Chinese traditional cultures. In terms of the shape, chopsticks are square on one side, which means the earth, and circle on another side, which symbolizes the sky. It is so-called “Earth was square and Heaven was round5”. From the perspective of I Ching6, we don?t need to use two chopsticks at the same time, because one of the chopsticks is initiative and the other is a follower, which means one is above the other. In this way, two chopsticks constitute a Tai Ji7, the initiative one also called Yang, the follower called Ying.

Compared with the chopsticks which represent “oneness between men and nature”, the knife and fork represent a diverse concept of Britain——“dividedness between men and nature8”. So, when British have a dinner, we see that they always repeat two actions of cutting and poking. And all of those actions are for the one purpose: separating food! There is another important reason that leads British people to use fork and knife. Many western countries, including Britain, lived by hunting because of some historical factors. Knife, of course, became their basic tool to survive on the beasts. So, knife and fork also symbolized a kind of aggression and expansion. 34

天人合一

食物不再成为人们暴力之下的猎物，而是成为被和谐传送的物质。 5

Earth was square and Heaven was round：天圆地方。 6

I Ching：means Book of Changes，易经/周易。 7

太极 8

天人相分

5

Although chopsticks or knife and fork, superficially, are just simple tableware, there?re deep national cultures. Knowing those cultures is an important step in understanding those reasons that lead to different choices. 3.1.2 Square tables VS round tables

In Sino-English food culture, the shape of table also has a cultural significance. Chinese people prefer round table. In Chinese history, “round” represent “reunion9”, but square tables have corners at which people cannot sit. Therefore, ancient people used round table to keep families and friends closer, which is a manifestation of collectivism, and also makes dining atmosphere more bustle. In addition, it is more convenient for people to share foods in the same plates.

On the other hand, square table, more common in British food culture, usually only arrange two people to sit face to face. This is because that they stress “personal” and “privacy” instead of “collective” and “social”. If there is a large party, they will do nothing but piece together small square tables as a larger one to form a temporary collective, and usually chat with people on their opposite, because it is inconvenient for them to talk with others.

The shape of table is a manifestation of different cultures between China and Britain. Chinese like to share, so they prefer round table. While British pay attention on privacy, so they prefer square table.

3.2 Differences between Chinese and British diet manners

Since there are differences in diet tableware, diet manners are also different. In this part, seating arrangement and dining atmosphere will be analyzed. 3.2.1 Seating arrangement: south VS right

Because of the different form of the table, the seating arrangement is also bounded to differ. In fact, these discrepancies often reflect the cultural differences between two countries. 9

团圆

6

In China, there is an old idiom: “seat facing south10”. It means seating in north and your face is facing toward south. Actually, in China, whether it is in modern or in ancient, “south” is regard as an honorable and important position. Generally, Chinese ancient palaces and temples? gates are always toward south. In addition, Chinese emperors? seat is usually located at north and his face always toward south, and this can be summarized as a Chinese idiom “南面称王”, which means south is the direction for the sovereign. This idiom also stresses the significance of the south. On the other hand, “north”, in contrast with “south”, has a derogatory meaning. For example, the Chinese phrase “北面称臣” which is relative to “南面称王” means north is the direction for the liegeman. Besides, in Chinese ancient times, “north” not only represents a kind of orientation, but also has another explanation——“reverse”, and this is also extended as “being beated”. Because when people escaped after being beated, they always make their backs to the opponents, which can be expressed by a Chinese phrase as “败北”. To sum up, from these examples, we can see that “seat facing south” means respected and high-ranking, and this seat is also called “seat of honor11”. The host usually arrange the guests in “seat of honor” to express their esteem for them.

However, in Western countries, including Britain, the situation is fairly dissimilar. Because there were many assassinations in ancient times, and many assassinators used to hold a dagger in his right hand. The host would arrange guest to sit on the left side, which was convenient for a host to protect the guest. Therefore, at that time the most honorable position was on the left side of the host. While as the time passed by, the civilization has progressed, this old thuggish behavior has long become extinct. Nowadays, when British people arrange seats in a feast, what they concern about most is internal psychological need instead of physical security, which results in the widely recognized rule that the seat at the right side of the host is much honorable than the one at the left side. 1011

坐北朝南。 上座

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In conclusion, Chinese people will arrange guest to sit toward south, because “seat facing south” is a distinguish position. While considering the internal psychological need, Englishmen prefer to sit on the right side of host. 3.2.2 Dining atmosphere: bustle VS quiet

The bustle on the Chinese table and the quiet on the British table is the most distinct dissimilarity between Chinese and British dining atmosphere. If you enter into a Chinese restaurant, you will find almost everyone talking to each other happily and loudly. What?s more, urging guests or friends to drink12 at a banquet is another dining custom in China. There are many ways to urge guests to drink, and almost every method will make a little noise like finger-guessing game (a kind of drinkers? wager game). In the eyes of Chinese people, only the lively atmosphere can display host?s hospitality and pure-heartedness, and also reflect the internal happiness of the guests. To some extent, this lively and even noisy atmosphere embodies the cozy of Chinese family and harmony of neighbors. Contrary to the bustle on the Chinese table, the ambiance of English is quiet and graceful. They would not like Chinese people to speak loudly because in their opinion this is a kind of rude behavior which would affect others? dining. In addition, their eating habits are also influenced by the concept of individualism. For instance, they would not like to compel friends and guests to drink wine and the sound of cheers would be very slight. All of these have shown their respect for each other. So, in the whole process of dinner, you would not hear the noisy of speaking and cheers. In a word, the lively atmosphere embodies hospitality of Chinese while the quiet atmosphere reflects esteem of individual.

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Urge sb to drink: 劝酒

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3.3 Differences between Chinese and British diet objects 3.3.1 White wine VS red wine

Because of the geographical environment and climate, the Sino-English drinking objects and cultures have many differences.

First, in terms of wine itself, the raw material of wine between China and Britain are different. The ancient Chinese people mainly settled in the Yellow River basin with a temperate continental climate, and this climate is suitable for the growth of grains. Consequently Chinese people chose grains to make wine is white wine as we commonly know， like moutai13. Actually, in Chinese cultures, people prefer to drown his emotion in wine (especially refers to white wine). And the word “wine” always appear in many ancient poems such as “One thousand cups of wine are not enough when you are drinking with a close friend14”. This is the rhesis written by Ouyang Xiu, which used “wine” to express the friendship between friends. For another example, “But since water still flows, though we cut it with our swords, and sorrows return, though we drown them with wine15”, which expressed unwilling by poet Libai when the friend was leaving. Thus it can be seen that wine (especially refers to white wine) is not only a beverage but also can be used to express people?s feelings.

On the other hand, Europe, especially at the regions of Mediterranean coast, is very suitable for growing grapes, thus the Englishmen are used to drinking grape wine——red wine. For the British, the wine is more a pleasant substance than a spiritual sustenance. They pay more attention to the quality of the wine, which can be proved from their goblets. For example, champagne must be matched with gracile goblet, because champagne has more gas and slender goblet will slow the loss of the speed of bubbles, which can maintain flavor of champagne. The British are different from Chinese as they do not endow red wine with too much significance, but to make 1314

茅台酒

酒逢知己千杯少 15

抽刀断水水更流, 举杯销愁愁更愁

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demands on the quality of the wine itself. As a matter of fact, they regard tasting red wine as a kind of art. An advanced sommelier can distinguish the age of red wine from its color, sediment, odour and flavor.

As a whole, the attitude toward wine of Chinese is a spiritual sustenance, which does not care about flavor relatively. While the British focus more on quality, considering wine as an entertainment and even an art. 3.3.2 Chinese black tea VS British black tea

Tea, originated from China, is the most popular beverage in the world. In 16 century, it was introduced in Europe. And many countries began to drink tea. In this times, Britain formed a tea culture that is different from China, which not only changed local way of life but also influenced its spirits. This part will introduce the cultural connotation behind Sino-English black tea.

Tea, as one of the seven daily necessities16, has formed a unique culture in the Chinese history. The most significant of which is the aspect of medical care. As mentioned in Shen Nong 's Herbal Classic17“Shen Nong tasted hundreds of herbs, and tea detoxified seventy drugs in his body18.” Then, tea became a daily drinking because ancient people believed that it could detoxify and cure the illness. And the custom of drinking tea has been continued till now. Many elderly people are used to drinking black tea to keep fit. An American research suggested that the morbidity of heart break will be decreased by 40% if a man drinks black tea every day. In addition, Chinese people also combine tea with Buddhism to form a realm of “oneness between tea and Buddhist19”.

Although British have not planted a tea, but “Five O?clock Tea” has swept world in recent years. At the beginning, Charles II?s wife, princess Catherine took the black tea into the British royal. Then in 1940s, Duchess of Bedford, Anna, design and 1617

开门七件事

《神农本草经》 18

神农尝百草滋味，日遇七十毒，得茶而解。 19

茶禅合一

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promote the “Five O?clock Tea” which was just a way to keep a person active at first. However, as the time passed by, “Five O?clock Tea” became a social occasion which was helpful for ladies and gentlemen to communicate with each other. Until 20th century, drinking in café shop has become a fashion, because simply family-style afternoon tea could not meet the social needs of people.

To sum up, Chinese emphasize a peaceful state of mind and health when they drink tea. On the contrary, Englishmen considered black tea as a way of socializing, and formed “Five O?clock Tea” culture.

4 Causes of the differences between Chinese and British dietetic cultures

Except influenced by individualism and collectivism, the reason why there is such a big distinction between Chinese and British dietetic cultures is due to different diet concepts. The Chinese pay more attention to flavor while the English emphasize nutrition.

4.1 Individualism VS collectivism

As we all know, Chinese is a nation that highlight the collectivism which can be traced back to ancient times. Confucius pointed out, “If one wants to establish himself, he should help others to establish themselves at first20”. This kind of collectivistic orientation can also be found in Chinese food culture. Therefore, we can see that when Chinese have a dinner, they will carry out a way of “sharing”, which means sharing the ts?ai21 in the same plate by altogether. There is another example which can prove this kind of collectivism culture. Considering the different tastes of every guest, the host will often show the menu to the each guest and ask them to order the dishes they like best. And after meals, everyone endeavor to pay the bill. All of those behaviors reflect the Chinese traditional idea——“He22”, it is so-called collectivism. To sum up, collectivism is full of the whole dinner. 2021

己欲立而力人，己欲达而达人。 菜 22

合

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On the other hand, Britain and China is the two ethnic that diametrically opposed. Individualism is the main stream to Britain. So the principal characteristic of their food culture is “separated” style. They usually separate one dish into several parts and then send them to each guest. In the aspect of ordering menu, they are not like the Chinese people to show menu. The only thing they should do is to order the dishes they like without taking others? taste into account. And when the dinner comes to the end, they just go Dutch, that is to say, they just need to pay the bill for its own sake. 4.2 Nutrition VS flavor

A Bite of China23 is a variety show that broadcasted in May, 2012, which introduced Chinese splendid food culture. Through this program, it is not hard to see that we Chinese people are very proud of our dietary culture and, meanwhile, have deep love for it. In this series, we can see every kind of cuisine around the China. So far, China has formed eight cuisine systems. They are Shandong cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Cantonese cuisine, Jiangsu cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Beijing cuisine24. The reason why Chinese people have so many cuisine systems is just that they emphasize flavor very much. For example, although Sichuan cuisine and Hunan Cuisine are famous for its peppery flavor, there is also a wispy discrepancy between them. The chilli in Hunan cuisine can keep you coughing while Si chuan cuisine can make your lip paralytic. Compared to the nutrition, Chinese are more particular to the taste. It is important for Chinese people to savor the food. They think there is nothing in the world but have a palatable feast can make them happy. Just as Lin Yutang once said in his famous book The Importance of Living, “How a Chinese spirit glows over a good feast! How apt is he to cry out that life is beautiful when his stomach and his intestines are well- filled. From this well-filled stomach suffuses and radiates a happiness that is spiritual. The Chinese idea of happiness is, as I have noted elsewhere, being ?warm, well-filled dark and 2324

舌尖上的中国

八大菜系：鲁菜，川菜，粤菜，苏菜，浙菜，湘菜，徽菜，京菜

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sweet?——referring to the condition of going to a bed after a good super. It is for this reason that a Chinese poet says, ?A well- filled stomach is indeed a great thing; all else is luxury25?”

However, different from Chinese, British people pursue more nutrition than aroma and flavor. You can see lots of information of nutrition like calories, protein, vitamin, etc. in their daily diet. For them, the only purpose of food is to keep them energetic and vibrant, in other words, the food is just a means of survival for them. If Chinese regard the food as an art, the British treat the food as a science. For instance, in the recipe of westerners, the quantity of salt, sugar, oil, etc. can be accurate to gram. As a matter of fact, they will control the dosage of salt or oil in a certain limitation in order to keep them healthy and balance even if the taste may not be very delicious. Nutrition and health is the most important principle in their daily diet. Instead of spending time on how to improve the taste of food, they are more willing to spend time to calculate how many calories, sugars and some other energies should be absorbed a day. In a word, the diet of British people is a rational diet.

In conclusion, the Chinese diet is delicious in taste, but too many spices may not be conducive to good health. While for the British diet, although the nutrition is carefully calculated, the flavor may be a little boring.

5 Conclusion

By the comparison and analysis of different performances and causes between Chinese and British dietetic cultures, people can understand cross-culture better. Food dietetic culture is not a simple thing about “eating”, it also reflects cultural nature of two countries. Actually, with the evolution of the globalization, Chinese and British food dietetic culture will conflict more sharply, so it has great significance for us to comprehend cultural differences. However, Chinese and British dietetic cultures do not exist in isolation. Under the circumstances of globalization, the two cultures will 25

肠满诚好事，余者皆奢侈。

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accept each other as well. Indeed, the red wine is becoming more and more popular on Chinese?s tables. And “Five O?clock Tea” is no longer the exclusiveness of British people. Although the dietetic cultural performances are changing constantly, the cultural nature is certainly the same. So, people should still know the cultural differences hidden in the dietary of Chinese and British. Only in this way can they not only avoid embarrassments at the table but also further promote the cultural communication.

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References

[1] Bian Hao-yu & Gao Yong-chen. A Comparative Study of Differences Between Chinese and Western Food Cultures. Viewed 2 2004, < http://www.cnki.net/ >. [2] Lin Yutang. 1998. The Importance of Living. Foreign Language Teaching & Research Press, Beijing.

[3] Liu Yong. 2012. Chinese Wine. Time Publish and Media Co., Ltd, Huangshan Bookstore, Anhui.

[4] Mike Storry & Peter Childs. 2002. British Cultural Identities. Routledge, London. [5]毕文静. 浅析中英茶文化内涵的差异. 见于2012年04期. < http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?QueryID=10&CurRec=6&recid=&filename=DZLU201204115&dbname=CJFD2012&dbcode=CJFQ&pr=&urlid=&yx>. [6] 陈弘美. 用刀叉吃出高雅——西餐礼仪. 第一版. 北京.三联书店. 2012. [7] 多晓萍. 从饮食角度浅析中西文化. 第一版. 兰州. 兰州工业高等专科学校学报. 2005.

[8] 刘承华. 文化与人格——对中西文化差异的一次比较. 第一版. 合肥. 合肥科学技术大学出版社. 2002.

[9]饶清清. 中西酒文化差异比较. 见于2010年SC期. < http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?QueryID=1&CurRec=2&recid=&filename=SPZN2010SC090&dbname=CJFD2010&dbcode=CJFQ&pr=&urlid=&yx>. [10]王春华，聂聪中. 西酒文化差异考究. 见于2011年6期. < http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?QueryID=1&CurRec=5&recid=&filename=PTZP201106017&dbname=CJFD2011&dbcode=CJFQ&pr=&urlid=&yx>. [11] 吴澎. 中国饮食文化. 第一版. 北京. 化学工业出版社. 2012. [12]姚江波. 中英茶文化比较. 见于

1999

年

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期. <

http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?QueryID=10&CurRec=5&recid=&filename=NOSE199904124&dbname=cjfd1999&dbcode=CJFQ&pr=&urlid=&yx>.

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中英饮食文化差异

摘要：饮食文化作为跨文化的一部分，在跨文化交流研究中有着重要的意义。本论文探讨的是中英饮食文化的差异。不同的国家有不同的饮食文化，本文将通过列举餐具、餐桌礼仪、饮食对象等不同的现象来说明中英间的饮食文化差异。此外，本文也总结了导致这些文化差异的原因。本文通过列举某些现象及分析出现这些现象的原因，意在让人们更好地理解隐藏在饮食差异背后的文化本质。人们只有通过更好地了解饮食文化差异，才能在餐桌旁避免文化冲突。

关键词：跨文化交流；饮食文化；文化差异

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