Car (DK Eyewitness Books)

老爷车

老爷车

EyewitnessCar

老爷车

Austin emblem

Electric side light c. 19301958 Morris Mini Minor

Buick emblem

Bulb horn from 1908 Mercedes

Early spark plug

Oil motor lamp c. 1900Spoked car wheel c. 19001930 Bentley 4.5 liter

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老爷车

老爷车

Contents

6 Horseless power8 The pioneers10 Warning signals12 Coachbuilt splendor14 The open road16 Mass-production18 Supercharged power20 Lighting the way22 Traveling in style26 High performance28 American dream30 Cars for the city32 Racing car34 Creating a car36 The anatomy of a car42 The driving force44 How the engine works46 Inside the engine

Early spark plugs48 Fuel and air50 Vital spark52 The drive train54 Smoothing the ride56 Stopping and steering58 Changing wheels60 Riding on air62 Marques and makes64 Did you know?66 Car culture68 Find out more70 Glossary72 Index

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Horseless power

Frenchman named Étienne Lenoir gingerly started the engine he had built and mounted between the wheels of an old horse cart. Minutes later, the little cart was trundling through the MAKING A DASH FOR ITVincennes forest near Paris, moved The front panel of many early cars was reminiscent only by the slowly thumping engine. of the “dashboard” of the It was a historic moment, for Lenoir’s horse carriage – so-called because it saved the self-propelled cart was launched into coachman from being a world of horsedrawn carriages and “dashed” by flying stones THE FIRST CAR SOLDthrown up by the horses. Dating from 1888, this is an ad for the stagecoaches, cart tracks and dust Even today, a car’s first car ever sold, Karl Benz’s three-instrument panel is still roads – a world that would soon vanish wheeler “Patent-Motorwagen.”referred to as the dash.forever. Lenoir was not the first to build a “horseless carriage”; carriages powered by cumbersome steam engines had already been made for almost a century. His breakthrough was the invention of the compact “internal combustion” engine (pp. 42-45), which worked by burning gas inside a cylinder. A few years later, these engines were made to run on gasoline and soon the first experimental motor cars were being built. In 1885, the first car to be sold to the public rolled out of the workshops of Karl Benz in Mannheim in Germany. The age of the automobile had begun.

Early cars had curved iron springs to smooth the ride – just like those used on horse coaches throughout the 19th century.

Coach spring

EngineCOACH SPRINGOne afternoon in the summer of 1862, a COACHWORKThe first motor cars owed a great deal to the horse carriage. Indeed, many pioneering cars were simply horse carts with an engine – which is one reason they were known as horseless carriages. Even purpose-built cars were usually made by a traditional coachbuilder, using centuries-old skills and techniques.TAKE AWAY THE HORSE …The similarities between horse carriages and the first cars are obvious. Note the large wheels, boat-shaped body, high driver’s seat, and dashboard.HILL-CLIMBINGMany early cars could not climb hills because they had no gears; they simply came to a standstill and then rolled backward. But on the Benz Victoria of 1890, the driver was given a lever to slip the leather drive belt onto a small pulley. This meant the wheels turned more slowly, but the extra leverage enabled the car to climb uphill. The chain-driven Velo had three of these forward-gear pulleys and one reverse.

HORSE SENSEThe first cars were notoriously unreliable. This cartoon suggested it might be just as well to take a couple of horses along in case of a breakdown.Massive flywheel to keep the engine running smoothlyRear wheels driven by chains looped arwound big cogs on either wheel

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The engine was always mounted behind or under the driver, where the power could be easily transmitted to the rear wheels.

HIGH FOR HORSESREAR ENGINE

Brackets for coach-lampsThe driver of a horse carriage needed a high seat to see over the horses. Early cars had a similar high seat.

Steering column and control wheel

First gear leverPOWER OF THREE HORSESThe single large cylinder of the Benz’s engine was tucked beneath the driver’s seat. It pushed out just under three horsepower – quite enough to propel the car forward at up to 20 mph (30 kph).

ONE-HAND TURNBACK-SEAT DRIVERThe first cars often had small, backward-facing seats at the front, and the driver had to peer over the heads of the front-seat passengers.

ThrottleLight wheels and slow speed meant that the first cars could be steered with a small tiller wheel on an upright column in the middle of the car.

Second gear lever

Main hand brake

Emergency transmission brake

Fuel-air mixture control

Chain drive to wheels

Brake cableGear pulleys driven by leather belts

1898 Benz “Velo”

Lightweight bicycle wheels: quite adequate until engines became more powerfulThe pioneering Benz factory led the world in carmaking in the early years and by 1896 had built over 130 cars. The solid, reliable Benz “Velo,” introduced in 1894, was the first car ever to sell in significant numbers.Solid rubber tires

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The pioneers

By 1900, cars were looking more like cars and less like horse carriages. The pioneering cars were difficult to start, and even more difficult to drive. But each year new ideas made the car a more practical and useful machine. In France, carmakers such as Panhard Levassor, De Dion Bouton, and Renault were especially inventive. It was Panhard who thought of putting the engine at the front and who, in 1895, built the first sedan. Renault championed the idea of a shaft, rather than a chain, to drive the rear wheels. In the early 1900s, the French roadsters were by far the most popular cars in Europe. Everywhere, though, the car was making progress. In the United States, where the Duryea brothers had made the first successful American car in 1893, cars such as the famous Oldsmobile Curved Dash were selling by the thousand. In Britain in 1900, 23 cars completed a 1,000-mile (1,600-km) run from London to Scotland and back.From 1901-1910 on, cars in most countries had to be registered and carry a number plate – partly to help the authorities identify reckless drivers.NUMBERED DAYSWOOD WORKSThe bodywork of early automobiles was made almost entirely of wood, often by a traditional coachbuilder, and painted just like old coachwork.

TOOL ROOMSince few people expected to drive far in the pioneering days, most cars had very little space for luggage – the trunk was usually filled with tools and spare parts!Trunk

INFERNAL MACHINESThe arrival of the first cars in country towns and villages created quite a stir. But they were not always welcome, for they scared horses and threw up thick clouds of dust.

“GET OUT AND GET UNDER!”Breakdowns marred many a day out in the early years – and even inspired a famous music hall song. Here the mechanic has removed the front seat – probably to get at the troublesome transmission. But such mishaps were already less common in 1903 than they had been five years earlier.Coach-type leaf spring

KEEPING CLEANOne early concession to comfort on the motor car was the addition of mudguards around the wheels to protect passengers from dirt thrown up off the roads.

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Foot plate

Simple rigid-bar rear axleCrank

Drive shafts

The de Dion’s clever rear-axle design made it easy to drive. The final-drive gear of the de Dion, unlike that of many other cars, is not part of the axle and so does not bounce up and down with the springs (p. 52). Instead it is attached firmly to the car body and turns the rear wheels via two short shafts.

Valve lift controlSOLID RIDEFinal-drive gearCONTROL COLUMN

Slanted steering columnHand brakeOn early cars, the engine settings – throttle, ignition advance, and valve lift – had to be adjusted constantly, using levers on the steering column or a column nearby. Speed was controlled by FIRST LESSONThe first cars were very hard moving the ignition advance to drive. To move off, the lever backward or forward.Ignition driver had to advance the advance/ignition and open the retardvalves further using the column levers, then release the hand brake and juggle Throttlethe car into gear while carefully letting out the clutch pedal – all the time watching out for traffic!Louvers to improve flow of cooling air

Reversing pedal

Emergency foot brake

Propeller shaft, which connects the gearbox with the final drive

1903 de Dion Bouton Model Q

The Model Q is typical of the French roadsters so popular in the early years of the 20th century. One of the keys to its success was the powerful little 846 cc engine. The engine was based on the old Daimlers, but was designed to run twice as fast.Wooden spoked wheels inherited from the horse-cart

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Warning signals

Early cars were hard to control – and even harder to stop. Yet the roads were full of hazards – potholes, sharp bends, steep hills, and stray animals. Even the shortest outing in a car rarely passed without incident. Road signs were put up to warn drivers of coming dangers, but unwary animals and pedestrians all too often were hit by speeding motor cars or forced to leap out of the way. To protect people from these “scorchers,” horns and other warning devices were made compulsory, and frantic tooting soon became a familiar sound on

Perforated rural roads.dirt cover

DRIVER: “HE MIGHT

HAVE KILLED US!”Mounting bracket

WARNING BELL belowThis American foot-operated gong was a popular alternative to the horn, for it left the driver’s hands free to control the car. Called the “Clarion Bell,” it made a very odd sound for a motor car.

Foot switchThe recklessness of some motorists – summed up in this cartoon – meant that accidents were common.TRUMPET HORN aboveCommon on early cars was the bulb-blown trumpet horn – not so different from the mouth-blown horns used on the old stage-coaches. This 1903 Mercedes horn has a long tube so that the horn can be mounted toward the front of the car.

Resonator

Air bulb

Not all old horns were elaborate. Horns such as this French Simplicorn, originally fitted to the dashboard of a 1903 De Dion Bouton, were simple but effective.STRAIGHT TUBE

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SWEET SOUND leftSometimes called a “sugar-pot,” this rare horn dating from 1911 has a distinctive, fluty tone. The perforated endpiece keeps dirt from getting in. It also means the horn works at high speeds, when the headwind may be too much for other horns.OUT OF CONTROL leftFarmer: “Pull up, you fool! This horse is bolting!” Motorist: “So is the car!” This cartoon shows how much difficulty early drivers had in controlling their machines – and why they were so unpopular with horseback riders and cart drivers alike.Motor cars have been restricted by speed limits right from the start. In Britain, there was the “Red Flag” Act of 1865 which required that all cars have two drivers, while a third walked in front waving a red flag. The act was repealed in 1896, but new speed limits were soon imposed everywhere.SPEED LIMIT right

OUT OF MY WAY! aboveIn the hands of many an arrogant motorist, horns were not just warning signals but devices for scaring pedestrians off the road. Fearsome boa constrictor horns like this were sold as accessories. Such horns were usually made of brass and often decorated with jeweled eyes and jutting red tongues.Mounting bracketTranslucent indicator hand

Metal tongue

HAND SIGNALS rightAs cars became more and more common on the road, drivers began to signal their intentions to other road users by standard hand signals. Those shown here mean, from top to bottom: I am stopping; I am slowing down; you may pass; I am turning left; I am turning right.Swiveling wristHAND-OUT right

Rubber-lined, flexible brass tubeFor those with money, there were soon all kinds of weird and wonderful motoring gadgets for sale. One strange device was this cable-operated hand, dating from 1910 – long before turn signals were developed. It clipped on to the car door and the driver could turn a knob on the dashboard to mimic all the hand signals. It also lit up at night.

AIR POWER below left

Diaphragm

Electric terminal

Air compressorModern horns are electrically operated, and the sound comes from a diaphragm vibrated by an electromagnet. In this air horn, compressed air vibrates the diaphragm especially loudly.

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Coachbuilt splendor

more popular, so the rich wanted more and more exclusive auto-mobiles. The luxury cars of the pre-World War I years were Elegant women and their uniformed chauffeurs made with the best technology became the subject of many a romantic storyand the best craftsmanship. No expense was spared, and these luxury autos – Hispano-Suizas, Benzes, Delauney-Belvilles, and Rolls-Royces – were built to standards rarely seen again in carmaking. Interiors were furnished with velvet and brocade, fine leather and thick pile carpets. Bodies were made precisely to the customers’ requirements by the finest coachbuilders. The engines were large, powerful, and smooth-running. But they were cars not for the rich to drive, but to be driven in, by professional chauffeurs or drivers.

Folding “Cape-cart” hood

Folding windshield for rear seat passenger

COVER UPAs cars became cheaper and FASHIONABLE MOTORINGRich women did not expect to drive; they simply wanted to be driven in style. One said, “I am not concerned in the least with the motor. I leave [that] to Monsieur Chauffeur. My only interest is in the interior.”OPEN CHOICEOpen tourers were often preferred to tall, closed limousines, which swayed alarmingly on corners. This one is in the style known as “Roi des Belges”, after the body made for the king of Belgium’s 1901 Panhard.Motorists were quite happy with an open tourer, providing it had “a light Cape-cart hood on the back to keep the dust out and set up in case of heavy rain.”

Air-filled “pneumatic” tireBrake drumEven on luxury cars, many body parts were not specially made but adapted from other uses. Electrical switches were like those used in the home. The dial is an ammeter which shows electrical current.HOUSEHOLD SWITCHESToolboxRatchet for holding brake when descending hills

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Folding windshieldThe rich were cautioned to have more than one car, so as to have the right coach body for every occasion. This is a “limousine” suitable for evenings because a top hat could be worn inside.EVENING WEAR

SMOOTH POWERHOUSE

DRIVER CONVENIENCE

By 1909, most cars had a long hood running in a smooth line back from the radiator, with headlights mounted either side. The Rolls-Royce’s radiator grille became its trademark.

WIND PROTECTIONHOOD AND GRILLEThrottle and ignition levers are now conveniently mounted on the wheel.The open hood reveals the Rolls’ quiet 6-cylinder, 7-liter engine, which enabled the car to whisper along at 50 mph (80 kmh).EngineAfter 1909, cars usually had windshields to keep off wind and dust. But there were no wipers, so chauffeurs smeared the shield with raw potato or apple to help rainwater run off.

Hand brakeFLAT PLANEarly cars carried a spare tire but no spare wheel. So, in the event of a flat tire, the driver had to jack the car up, pry the old tire off the wheel rim, put on the spare, and pump it up.Throttle and ignition leversCopper cooling pipes“Spirit of Ecstasy” hood ornament added in 1911

All-steel chassis

1909 Rolls-Royce 40/50 “Silver Ghost”When Charles Rolls and Henry Royce made their first car, in 1906, it soon became known as “the best car in the world” because of its sheer quality. Ghost-like quietness and a shiny aluminum body earned it the name Silver Ghost.Wooden-spoked wheel

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The open road

equipped for touring. Indeed, protective clothing was vital in the open cars of the pioneer era. Not only was there rain and cold to contend with but, worst of all, the dreadful dust thrown up by dry dirt roads. Motorists would often come home covered from head to foot in a thick layer of muck. At first, clothes were adapted from riding and yachting and other outdoor pursuits. But before long a huge variety of special motoring clothes was on sale. Some were practical and sensible; others clearly for show. A motorist could easily spend as much on a motoring wardrobe as on a new car. Yet the pleasures of the open road made all the little hardships and the expense worthwhile, and touring became highly fashionable.

Nose-swivel to insure good fitOwning a car provided every reason for dressing up and getting

Orange tint to reduce road glare

THE RIGHT GEAR

Dust flap for earsGoggles and headgear were vital in an open car with no windshield. At first, peaked caps (right) were popular with the fashion-conscious; serious drivers preferred helmet and goggles (left and above). But soon most drivers were wearing helmets – with built-in visors, earmuffs, and even “anti-collision protectors.”DRESSED TO DRIVE aboveHere are just some of the many styles of early motoring wear. The woman’s “beekeeper” bonnet was very popular with fashionable women for keeping dust off the face and hair. Thick fur coats were usually made at huge expense from Russian sable, ocelot, and beaver.

Copper body to conduct heat

HOT FOOT

HANDY WEARThe driver’s hands would soon get cold and dirty on the controls. So a good pair of gloves – preferably gauntlets – was essential. Gauntlets were usually fur-lined leather, like many modern motorcycle gloves.Sitting in an open car on a winter’s day could make one bitterly cold. Many a passenger must have been grateful for a foot-warmer like this, which could be filled with hot water before setting out. Foot muffs and “puttees” (leggings) also helped keep out the cold.

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Heatproof felt

TEA BAG leftWith few roadside cafés, British motorists found taking their own tea with them was a necessity – and all part of the great adventure of motoring. Since the journey could take hours, and you could be stranded anywhere, it was worth doing properly. So motorists paid for beautiful tea baskets like this one in leather and silver. They often came with a matching lunch basket.

Tea box

Combined kettle and teapot

PICNIC BY THE SEAOnly the rich could afford a car in the early days, so motoring picnics tended to be lavish. The luxury shops could provide fine cutlery and glass, as well as hampers of champagne, roast chicken, and other expensive food.

Paraffin stove to heat waterMatchbox

THE JOYS OF MOTORING leftCar advertisements made the most of the pleasures of fast motoring through lovely countryside. This is a picture of a 6-cylinder Essex, a typical 1920s American sedan.

Getting lost became a regular’ hazard for pioneer motorists on tour. Signposts were then few and far between. One dirt road looked much like another. And there was no coachman on hand to guide the motorist safely home. Sets of the new, detailed road maps that quickly appeared in stores became as vital to the motorist as a set of tools.

Complete set of road maps in leather index case, from the 1920sWHERE NEXT? right

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Mass-production

Detroit farmboy Henry Ford’s dream to build “a motor car for the great multitude – a car so low in price that no man making a good salary will be unable to own one.” When he finally realized his dream, with the launch of the Model T Ford in 1908, the effect was revolutionary. The T meant people barely able to afford a horse and buggy could buy a car. In 1908, fewer than 200,000 people in the U.S. owned cars; five years later 250,000 owned Model Ts alone. By 1930, over 15 million Ts had been sold. The key to Ford’s success was mass production. By using huge teams of men working systematically to build huge numbers of cars, he could sell them all very cheaply. Indeed, the more he BOLT-ON FENDERsold, the cheaper they became.A simple mounting bracket Simple hinged half-door

Wood-frame body tubslots through the hole and bolts on to the fender.

Pneumatic tireCars were the toys of the rich in the early days. But it was Body-mounting bracket

DROP-ON BODYThe wood-frame body tub (here missing its seat cushion, or “squab”) was made on another production line then lowered onto the chassis at the right moment.

Exhaust pipe

Rear axle and final-drive gear

Frame for fold-down roofButtoned leather upholsteryROLLING CHASSIS

Pressed steel body panelThe wheels were fitted early in production so that the chassis could be easily moved.

The production line

Before Ford, complete cars were built by small teams of men. In the Ford factory, each worker added just one small component, as partly assembled cars were pulled rapidly past on the production line.Rear mudguard

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The principles Ford used to make the Model T are used in car manufacturing to this day. Modern assembly lines use robots to build cars more quickly, cheaply, and accurately. But the idea of assembling components on a moving production line remains.

BIT BY BITHENRY FORD AND SONIt is easy to see how the Model T took shape from its individual components. Fenders, running board, and sill all bolt together to form one side of the car, and are mounted directly on to the chassis.One of the things that made the Model T so cheap was its standardized body. At the time, most car bodies were built separately by specialist coachbuilders; the Model T’s was made right on the Ford production line. So Ts could not be tailor-made to suit individual customers’ requirements. Instead, Ford offered a limited variety of alternative body styles.STANDARD VARIATIONS1909 Phaeton1911 Roadster

1916 Doctor’s coupe

Outrigger to support bodywork

Fuel tankSTAMP COLLECTIONBefore mass production, this panel would have been handmade. Ford used machines to stamp it out in a fraction of the time.

Gearbox1927 Tourer2,898 cc engine giving top speed of 40 mph (65 kmh)Hood

Radiator frame to support hood

Hand brake

TOUGH TINRUNNING REPAIRSRadiator

Right-hand-drive steering wheelThe T’s chassis appeared fragile, earning it the nickname Tin Lizzie. But it was made from vanadium steel, which proved very strong.Simplicity and practicality were the keynotes in the T; its hood folded back or lifted right off for easy access to the engine.

The cheap, tough, and thoroughly reliable Model T put America, and much of the world, on the roads for the first time – and earned the affection of two whole generations of American families.

SillFord Model T c1912

Front fender

Running boardFord claimed that his car was available in “any color you like, so long as it’s black.” This meant painting was cheap and simple. Later models came in other colors.ONLY ONE COLOR

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Supercharged power

In the 1920s, many motorists owned powerful new “sports” cars – cars made purely for the pleasure of driving fast. The sports cars of the 1920s had huge engines and devices such as superchargers to give them an extra turn of speed. A few cars, including the Duesenberg J and the Bentley, could top 100 mph (160 kmh). Sports cars like these often had an impressive racing pedigree, for manufacturers were aware of the publicity to be won from success in auto racing. Alfa Romeo, Bugatti, Bentley, Chevrolet, and Duesenberg all earned their reputations on the racetrack. And technical innovations made to win races were quickly put into cars for the ordinary motorist; the Bentley sold to the public was little different from its racing counterpart.

SINGLE EXITONLY THE BRAVESTA Delage speeds above the famous red line at Montlhery near Paris. To run so high on the banked track, cars had to go over 90 mph (150 kmh).BACK-SEAT RACERSTo bridge the gap between road cars and racing cars, some races in the 1920s were closed to all but four-seater tourers. The famous 24-hour event at Le Mans in France was such a race – which is why this Bentley had a back seat.The Bentley has only one front door, for the benefit of the co-driver. On the driver’s side, there is simply a dip in the bodywork to make the outside hand brake easy to reach.

A series of sensational victories in the Le Mans 24-hour races in 1924, 1927, 1928, 1929, and 1930 made the big Bentleys legendary.1930 Bentley 4.5 liter supercharged

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BUILT FOR RACINGThe front view of the Bentley confirms its functional design with no bodywork blocking access to the suspension and brakes.

Big, powerful headlights, with stone guards

Front-mounted supercharger and carburetor

WEATHER GEARAlthough never raised when racing, the Bentley did have a basic hood, and a “tonneau” cover for the back seat.

Fast-action fuel tank cap

Wide fantail exhaust producing distinctive rumble

Spare spark plugsLouvers to increase the flow of cooling air over the engineAll-important hand brake working drum brakes on all four wheelsThe Le Mans 24-hour race tests cars and drivers to the limits as they hurtle around the 8-mile circuit for a night and a day nonstop. This picture shows the race in the early 1930s, with a 1.5-liter Aston Martin in the foreground.NIGHT AND DAYThe engine, normally visible here, has been removed for maintenanceTHE BLOWERLike many sporting cars of the 1920s and 1930s, this Bentley has a supercharger, or “blower.” This drives extra fuel into the engine to boost power (p. 49).

Brake drumsCOMPETITION TRIMMany details on the Bentley show its racing pedigree. Wire mesh protects the lights and the carburetor against stones thrown up from the track. Quick-release radiator and fuel caps aid mid-race refueling. Leather straps keep the hood from flying open. The white circle on the body is for the car’s racing number.

IN THE HOT SEATSupercharger roaring, a Type 35 Bugatti bears down on the leaders in a 1920s Grand Prix. Protection for driver from flying stones was minimal.

Oil filler cap

POWER HOUSESteering swivelSUPER TRUCKSSuperb engines, built in 3-, 4-, 4.5-, 6.5-, and 8-liter versions, made the Bentleys very quick. The supercharged 4.5-liter models could top 125 mph (200 kmh).The speed, size, and rugged, no-nonsense looks of the Bentleys provoked Italian car designer Ettore Bugatti to describe them as “the world’s fastest trucks.”

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Lighting the way

power and efficiency of modern car lighting. But in the early days, lighting was so poor that few motorists ventured out on the road after dark. The lights on the first cars were candle lamps inherited from horse-drawn carriages. They were so dim that they did little more than warn other road users of the car’s presence. Special car lights were soon developed, running first on oil or acetylene gas then electricity. Yet for many years lights were considered to be luxury accessories. It was not until the 1930s that bright electric lights were fitted as standard on most cars.Night driving today is relatively safe and easy, thanks to the Chimney

MIDNIGHT OIL

“Pie-crust” chimney topPurpose-built lamps which burned oil or gasoline were in widespread use by 1899. The popular Lucas King of the Road “motor carriage lamp” (right) had a small red lens in the rear; separate taillights like the Miller (below) were not made compulsory until much later.Front lens catch to allow access for lighting the wick

Oil reservoir

Candle wick holderWAX WORKS leftRed-stained glass lensThe pioneers’ cars had brackets for candle carriage lamps. Carriage lamps were beautifully made, and a spring pushed the candle up as it burned down. But dim candles were no good at all for driving. Even a slight breeze blew out the flame, while the jolting of the car shook the lamps to pieces. Candle lamps did serve a purpose, however. If the car was stranded by a breakdown at night, the lamps illuminated the immobile vehicle.Wick adjusterA NIGHT OUT leftOil reservoirBIG MATCHSpring-loaded candle holderIn streetlit cities, candle lamps made it just possible to drive after dark. This ad promotes the attractions of arriving for an evening gala by car. A troublesome horse in the background completes the illusion.Lighting a candle lamp or even an oil lamp on a windy night was a tricky business. Special strongly flaring “motor matches,” made “for use on motor cars and launches,” made life for the motorist a little less difficult.

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