2005The future of animal models of invasive aspergillosis
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MedicalMycologySupplement12005,43,S115ÁS119
ThefutureofanimalmodelsofinvasiveaspergillosisT.F.PATTERSON
DepartmentofMedicine,UniversityofTexasHealthScienceCenteratSanAntonio,SanAntonio,Texas,USAThediagnosisofinvasiveaspergillosisremainsverydifficult,coupledwithlimited
treatmentoptions.Animalmodelshavebeenutilizedtoevaluateboththediagnosis
andtreatmentofinfectionandtoassessthepathogenicityandvirulenceofthe
organism.However,animalmodelshavenotbeenstandardizedandhavebeenused
inonlyalimitedfashionforgenomicevaluationinthisdisease.Extensiveefforts
areunderway
toexpandsignificantlytheAspergillusgenomicinformation.Thus,
thestandardizationofanimalmodelsofinvasiveaspergillosisiscriticaltocreatea
unifiedplatformtoenhanceevaluationofnewergenomicinformationandallow
assessmentofpathogenicityandvirulencefactors.Proposedmodels,supportedby
arecentlyawardedNationalInstitutesofHealth/NationalInstituteofAllergyand
InfectiousDiseasescontract,willbedevelopedincloseinteractionwiththe
extendedAspergilluscommunity(includingacademiaandindustry)toanswerkey
questionsinthisdisease.Thegoalofthisworkistoprovidetheframeworkto
evaluategenomictargetsinanimalmodelsinordertoimprovethediagnosisand
treatmentofinvasiveaspergillosisthatwillultimatelyresultinimprovedoutcomes
ofpatientswiththisfrequentlyfatalinfection.
KeywordsAspergillus,invasiveaspergillosis,animalmodels
Introduction
Animalmodelshavebeenutilizedtoevaluateboththe
diagnosisandtreatmentofinvasiveaspergillosis,and
havealsobeenusedtoassesspathogenicandvirulence
featuresoftheorganism[1Á3].However,thelackof
standardizationofanimalmodelsystemsinthisdisease
haslimitedtheirvalueinassessingbothvirulenceand
pathogenicityandhamperedeffortstoidentifynew
diagnosticandtherapeutictargets.Extensiveeffortsare
underwaytosignificantlyexpandtheAspergillusgeno-
micinformation;asaresult,thereisgreatpotentialfor
identifyingnewdiagnosticandtherapeuticstrategies
criticallyneededforthisoftenlethalinfection.One
approachtoimprovingAspergillusanimalmodelshas
beentheawardofacontractbytheNationalInstitutes
ofHealth/NationalInstituteofAllergyandInfectious
Disease(NIH/NIAID)toestablishandstandardizeanimalmodelsofinvasiveaspergillosis,includingmurineandlargeranimalspecieswithbothpulmonaryanddisseminatedinfection.Thisbriefreviewwilldiscussthefutureofanimalmodelsofinvasiveaspergillosis,thelimitationsofcurrentanimalmodels,andthechallengesfacedindevelopingstandardizedmodels.Theaimsandcriticalneedsforfuturemodels,particularlyinthedevelopmentofnewdiagnostictools,willalsobeoutlined.Thegoalofthisworkistoprovidetheframeworkforevaluatinggenomictargetsinordertoimprovethediagnosisandtreatmentofinvasiveaspergillosis,whichwillultimatelyresultinimprovedoutcomesforpatients.ObjectivesoffutureanimalmodelsThefuturedevelopmentofanimalmodelsofinvasive
aspergillosishasseveralkeyobjectives,asshownin
Table1.Theseincludethedevelopmentofstandardized
modelsthatallowreproducibilitybetweenlaboratories,
andbetweenserialexperimentsconductedlongitudin-
allyinthesamelaboratorywiththesameprotocols.A
numberofvariables,suchasdifferentroutesof
challenge(rangingfromintravenoustointranasalto
DOI:10.1080/13693780400029429Correspondence:T.F.Patterson,(ProfessorofMedicine),UniversityofTexasHealthScienceCenteratSanAntonio,MailCode7881,7703FloydCurlDrive,SanAntonio,TX78229-3900,USA.Tel:'12105676680;Fax:'12105673303;E-mail:patterson@uthscsa.edu.–2005ISHAM
Table1ObjectivesofAspergillusanimalmodels
.Standardizedmodel(s)
.Recapitulateshumandisease
.Reasonablecosts
.Reproducibility
.Easeofuse
.Amenabletostudiesincluding
ÁEvaluationofnoveldiagnostics
ÁEvaluationofhostresponse
ÁEvaluationoforganismvirulencefactorsthroughmolecularmanipulations
ÁInvivoexpressionanalysis
ÁEvaluationoftherapeuticcompounds
aerosolchallenge),markedlyaffecttheoutcomeofstudies[1].Inaddition,thelackofstandardizationofvariousfactors,suchasinfectinginoculum,underlyingimmunosuppression,andvirulenceofstrainstudied,havemadecomparisonbetweenlaboratoriesdifficult
[4].Thus,amajorobjectiveforfuturemodelsistohavea‘referencestandard’modelÁor,morelikely,modelsÁthathavebeenvalidatedbetweenlaboratoriesandhavebeenshowntoproduceknowncoursesofinfectionordiseaseaswellasextentofinfectionwhichcanthenbeusedforcomparativepurposes.
Anothermajorgoalforfuturemodelsisforthecourseofdiseaseinthemodeltoaccuratelyreflectclinicalinfection.Itisparticularlyimportantfordiagnosticstudiesthatthemodelrecapitulateclinicalinfection,whichappearsmostlikelytooccurafterchallengethroughanaerosolroute.However,inmostanimalmodels,widelydisseminatedinfectionoccursmoreconsistentlywithanintravenouschallenge,andinsomesettings,suchasanimmunosuppressedrabbitmodel,pulmonaryinfectionalsoresultsfollowingintravenouschallengewhichproducesacourseofinfectionthatmimicswidelydisseminatedinfection
[5,6].Insomestudies,thesemodelsusingintravenouschallengeanddisseminatedinfectioninlargerspecies(rabbitsandguineapigs)havebeenshowntobeparticularlyusefulinevaluatingthekineticsofdiag-nosticmarkersaswellastherapeuticstudies[7Á11].
Otherissuesarepracticalandpragmatic.TheseincludecostÁsmallerspecies,suchasmice,allow
screeningstudiesbuttheserialassessmentofasmallernumberoflargerspeciesextensivelystudiedwithmultiplesurrogateendpointsmayreducetheutilizationofanimalresourcesandalsooverallcosts[12,13].Otherissuestoconsiderinfuturemodelsincludeeaseofuse,reproducibilityand,importantly,theamenabilityoftheanimalmodelstotheevaluationofnoveldiagnostics(largerspeciesofferserialsamplesbutsmalleranimalsallowmoreextensivenumberstobestudied),theevaluationofhostresponsesandassessmentoftherelationshipbetweenvirulenceoftheorganism,theeffectoftherapeuticcompoundsonresponseandcourseofinfection,andinvivogeneexpression.Becauseofthecriticalneedidentifiedforthedevelopmentofnewdiagnosticmarkersininvasiveaspergillosis,aswellastherefinementandbetterunderstandingofcurrentlyavailablemethods,theNIH/NIAIDrecentlyawardedacontract(NIH-NIAID-N01-AI-30041).Theobjectivesofthiscontractaretoestablishandstandardizeanimalmodelsofinvasiveaspergillosisthatwillallowthereliablequan-tificationofinfectiousburdenandtodefinesurrogatemarkersofinfectionanddiseaseprogression.ThesestudiesareaimedatimprovingthediagnosisandtherapyofinvasiveaspergillosisbyprovidingtheextendedAspergillusresearchcommunitywiththeresourcestoaddresssomeofthekeyquestionsinthefield,includinggeneticapproachestodiagnosis,animalmodelexperimentsandtrainingtoestablishtheseapproaches.KeyissuesforconsiderationinfuturemodelsAnumberofvariableshavebeenidentifiedascriticalforprovidingreferencestandardsforthisdisease(Table2).ThesefactorsincludestandardizationoftheinoculumÁrealizingthatanaerosolwillmostsimilarlymimicclinicalinfectionasopposedtointranasaldropletinstillation,intratrachealdelivery,orintrave-Table2Keyissuesforstandardization.Aspergillusstrainselection.InoculumstandardizationÁRouteofchallenge.ModelcharacterizationÁColonization/infectionÁLocalinfection/dissemination.HostselectionÁOutbred/inbredspeciesÁAnimalspecies(mice,guineapig,rabbit).ImmunosuppressionÁSteroidsÁNeutropeniaÁOthermethodsÁNon-immunosuppressed.Diseaseprogression.TissueburdenÁColonyformingunits(CFU)ÁSurrogatemarkerskAntigen(s):Galactomannan,otherskDNAkChitinkb-D-glucanÁOthermarkers.GeneexpressionÁEvaluationofnewgenomictargets
–2005ISHAM,MedicalMycology,43,S115ÁS119
nouschallenge.Additionally,anappropriateaerosoldeliverycanyieldamorehomogeneouspulmonaryinfectioncomparedtointranasalinstillation,asdemon-stratedthroughquantitativePCRevaluation,allowingtheentiremurinelungtobeutilizedforvariousdiagnostictestswiththeknowledgethattheinfectiousburdenisconsistentlydistributed[14].However,alter-nativeroutesmaywellhaveimportantadvantages,suchasproductionofdisseminatedinfection(forintrave-nouschallenge)orreproducibleinoculationintotheairways(forintranasalorintratrachealchallenge)
[1,15,16].Otherfeaturesincludingvirulenceofthestrainand/orspecieswillalsoneedtobeaddressed.Forexample,thecourseofinfectionchosenforstudywillvary,includingcolonizationvs.localinvasiveinfectionvs.disseminateddisease.CurrentstudiesfrequentlyutilizetheAspergillusfumigatusstrainAF293whichisthestrainusedforsequencing,butotherspeciesofferdistinctvirulencepropertiesandperhapsvaryingdiagnosticchallenges[17,18].
Anothermajorissueforconsiderationishostselec-tion.Inadditiontospeciesselection,asdiscussedabove,animalscanbeselectedasinbredstrainsvs.outbredspecies.Inbredstrainspresumablyofferlesshostgeneticvariability,buttheyareobviouslylimitedintermsofavailabilityandinanimalspeciesforwhichtheyexist.Theydoallowdistinctassessmentofsusceptibilityasdemonstratedinexperimentsdescribedbelow.However,notallinbredstrainswillbeidenticalinvariousregionsoftheworld,theyarenotalwaysreadilyavailableandaredistinctlymorecostly.Furthermore,theargumentcanalsobemadethatthediseaseunderstudyoccursinanoutbredclinicallyheterogenouspatientpopulation.Nevertheless,advan-tagesanddisadvantagesofeachcanbedescribed.Insettingswherespecifichostfactorsseemlesscriticaltooutcome,screeningstudiesmaybesufficientwithoutbredmice,sothatvalidationofthemodelinoutbredaswellasinbredstrainsisanimportantgoaloffuturemodels.
Otherhostissuesforconsiderationincludetheroleofimmunosuppression.Increasingly,infectedpatientshavelesstraditionalriskfactorsforinvasiveaspergil-losis[19Á21].Thus,futuremodelswilllikelyneedto
includeevaluationofnotonlyneutropenia(whichhasbecomelesscommonasariskfactor)butalsootherimmunosuppressiveagentsincludingcorticosteroids,asthesevariousimmunosuppressiveregimensmayimpactdiagnostictestperformanceinclinicalinfectionaswellasanimalmodels[22].
Finally,oneofthemostproblematicissuesinassessingtissueburdenofAspergillushasbeenthequantificationofthetissueburden.Semi-quantitative–2005ISHAM,MedicalMycology,43,S115ÁS119
colonycountshavebeenusedsuccessfullyinexperi-mentstoeffectivelyassesstissueburdenofAspergillus[5,23].However,theutilityoftheseculturesforhyphalorganismsislimitedastheyaredifficulttoreproducereliablybetweenlaboratories,asgrindingthehyphaemayproduceincreasedtissuecounts.Thesecountscanevenbefalselyelevatedwithantifungalagentssuchastheechinocandins,whichfragmenttheorganismtoincreasethecolonyformingunitsalthoughthetissueburdenisactuallyreduced[13,24,25].Thus,extensiveeffortsforassessingtissueburdeninfuturemodelsarefocusedontheuseofsurrogatemarkers.Theseeffortswillnotonlyprovideseveralendpointstoassesstissueburdenbutcouldalsoallowareductioninthenumbersofanimalsrequiredintheexperimentaldesignbyprovidingmultipleendpointsofassessment[12].Theseadditionalsurrogatescanincludegalactomannan,1-3,b-D-glucan,chitin,quantitativePCRtechniques,andothers[26,27].Inaddition,theincorporationofnovelmarkers,suchaslung-injuryscoresorhighresolutionchestcomputedtomography,canbeusefulintheassessmentoftissueburden[12,28].SequencingtheA.fumigatusgenomemayalsorevealnewpotentialsurrogatemarkertargets.Animportantaimforfuturemodelsisthestandardizationoftissueburdenusingthesesurrogatemarkers.FutureinhalationalmodelsTheutilityandreproducibilityofaerosolchallengewithA.fumigatusiscurrentlyundergoingevaluation[14,29].Forexample,inthemodeldevelopedbySheppardetal.[28]aneasilyreproduciblemethodofaerosolchallengeofimmunosuppressedmiceinanacrylicchamberproducedreproduciblecolonycountsandaconsistentcourseofinfection.Intra-laboratorystudiestovalidatethisapproachappearpromising,withasimilarcourseofinfectionandsimilarburdenofpulmonarydiseasebeingdemonstrated[unpublisheddata].Whilethereproducibilityofthiseasilytransportableaerosolsystemisencouraging,additionalstudiesutiliz-ingalarge-scaleinhalationalMadisonchamberarealsoinprogress.Thisinhalationalchamberprovidesaccuratedeliveryofaerosolinoculum(ofavarietyoforganisms,includingMycobacteriumtuberculosis,Ba-cillusspp.andYersenia,aswellasfungi)thatcanbedeliveredsimultaneouslytoanextensivenumberofmicebutalsomultiplelargeranimalssuchasrabbitsorguineapigs[30].Theadvantagesofsuchasystemincludeprecisedeliveryofadryaerosolinoculum,butalsosimultaneouschallengeofanimalswithanumberofvariables(suchastheroleofimmunosuppression,specificmousestrain,etc.)thatlimitsexperimental
variabilityandpotentiallyreducesthenumberofanimalsrequiredforstudy[31].
FuturegeneticstudiesusinganimalmodelsThepost-genomiceraofA.fumigatusisextremelyexcitingforthepotentialidentificationofnewdiag-nosticandtherapeutictargetsaswellasfornewinsightsintothepathogenesisandvirulenceoftheorganism.PreliminarystudiesbyZaasetal.[29,32]illustratethepotentialofthesestudies.Theseinvesti-gatorsusedanaerosolchallengeofavarietyofinbredmicetoassesstheroleofhostgeneticbackgroundonsusceptibilitytoAspergillus[32].Interestingly,ingcom-putationalgenetics,achromosomalregionwasthenidentifiedthatcorrelatedwithresistancephenotype.Candidategeneswereidentifiedfromthoseregionandstudiesarecurrentlyongoingtorevealthepotentialsignificanceofthosefindings.Theseresultsdemon-stratethepotentialofcarefullydesignedanimalmodelstoplayanimportantroleinthefutureevaluationintheexperimentalassessmentofinvasivepulmonaryasper-gillosis.
Conclusion
AnimalmodelshavebeenusefulforassessingthepathogenesisandvirulenceofAspergillusandhavesignificantlyaidedthedevelopmentofnewdiagnosticandtherapeuticmodalities.Futuremodelsofexperi-mentalaspergillosisareaimedatassistingintheidentificationanddevelopmentofnewdiagnosticandtherapeutictargetsthatmayresultfromsequencingoftheAspergillusgenome.Thesewillbeofmajorbenefittostudiesaimedultimatelyatimprovingthediagnosisandtreatmentofthisoftenlethalinfection.Acknowledgements
ThisworkhasbeensupportedwithFederalfundsfromtheNationalInstituteofAllergyandInfectiousDis-eases,NationalInstitutesofHealth,underContractNo.N01-AI-30041.
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